Author: Kálmán Kapusi
DOI: 10.5434/9789634902263/14
Abstract
This study offers assistance to those who are going to teach or already do teach how to play the double bass. It provides a summary from how to positione the instrument, through the most important musical terminology and all the technical difficulties thought to be obligatory for doublebass players. The first part of the study focuses on the main types of personalities of both teachers and sudents describing the major possibilities of harmonizing co-working and how to motivate and handle different characters. The second part describes the most frequent technical problems, for example instrument and bow positioning, practice routine and the preservation of the player’s working ability.
Keywords: doublebass, methodology, pedagogy
Foreword
Our world is in constant change; and we must tackle new challenges while preserving our values, which will nourish the generations we raise. They in turn will safeguard those values and transfer them further as performers and instructors to their audience and students. The rapid changes can only be responded to by instructors who are conscious of their weaknesses and intend to overcome them.
Musical education is the most important task for us, music instructors. Musical education also includes the presentation and transfer of an appropriate set of values. The summary below attempts to assist future double bass instructors because the methodology of teaching a given instrument is instrumental for any beginning teacher. I composed this study after almost two decades of instruction at the primary and tertiary level.
It goes without saying that the focal points of instruction may differ from one person to another, while the students’ capabilities should also be taken into account. I have attempted to consider all of these factors in compiling the material, which, hopefully, will be useful and helpful at any time.
Pedagogical Introduction
Instructors’ Characteristics
True teachers have a complex personality. Besides being moral educators, they ought to teach their subject of specialisation in a creative way, with sufficient empathy, rewarding students with a frequent sense of achievement.
They should have an above-average sense of recognising and solving diverse situations, since the planned method, or the one in the curriculum, needs to be changed to an entirely different one in many cases. Teachers with an adequate sense of recognition could become role models for their students.
Good teachers exude inner tranquillity. Quite often, students can open up only if they sense calmness from the teacher and perceive themselves in a safe environment. This capability can be improved proportionally with time, but conscious attention helps, as well (Megyimóreczné, 2015).
Empathy is a crucial trait for teachers. If they do not appreciate their students’ worries and problems and fail to show empathy, they might discourage students from music education. Sometimes it takes effort to accept others’ faults, but the objective must never be forgotten (Megyimóreczné, 2015).
I believe that good pedagogical sense can be taught and improved. Good teachers know when to get involved in a process and how to guide students towards the correct solution, which is often a matter of a minor detail. Good pedagogical sense includes the art of transferring knowledge. Even the best performers face difficulties if they cannot transfer knowledge to a satisfactory extent or at all. Good teachers encourage and reassure their students, leading them towards the correct solution. Teacher training colleges and universities should shape prospective teachers’ pedagogical attitudes during their studies. If teacher identity develops in that period, it is sure to guide people through their teaching career (Megyimóreczné, 2015).
Patience is another important personality trait for teachers, who always need to descend to their students’ cognitive level. It is crucial to ask questions and provide encouragement which correspond to the student’s age. From the very beginning, students should be trained to indicate whenever something is not clear for them. Summarising and reviewing material can be quite beneficial and may require additional patience. Frequent scolding eventually leads to dropping out. On a related note, whenever students have not been able to practice, the reasons should be investigated. Students need to be guided and led. Leading should be consequent and loving. Good teachers are not biased because favouritism might lead to selfishness and excessive pride on the student’s part. When teaching, self-critique must be exercised every day because otherwise the set of values would not be consistent.
Good teachers must be exceptional organisers. This is one of the most important traits. Teaching students to play instruments is not enough because concerts must also be organised. Challenges for performers include venue selection and audience recruitment. It is advisable to consider the audience’s needs and plan as many organisational tasks ahead as possible. A performance might be unsuccessful because of trivial but common issues, such as whether a presenter is available, who gives the certificates, who prepares them, whether water and snacks will be provided to the committee, or whether there are enough changing rooms for performers. Potential problems provide an opportunity to learn and ensure the success of subsequent performances.
Considering Age-specific Traits
Double bass instructors hardly ever meet kindergarteners and rarely encounter lower primary pupils as students. This is due to the size and characteristics of the instrument. However, half-size and even quarter-size double bass models do exist but are rare. It is welcome that some parents choose the double bass as the first instrument for their child. Lower primary students are thirsty for knowledge and are incredibly open. It is important to acknowledge and recognise their abilities. At that age, children are not yet independent and require care and attention invariably.
It is important that children should neither act nor feel excessive pressure. The parents’ responsibility at that age is great. Often parents force music education, which does not help their child’s attitude. Parents ought to be informed about their children’s progress and advancement to ensure adequate support. Encouragement and positive feedback are just as important at home as in class. However, if teachers establish too close of a relationship with parents, the danger arises that parents might consider themselves more knowledgeable about music education than the instructor. Such a situation can only be addressed with kindness and assured wisdom. For lower primary students, praise and reward are important, with the crucial requirement of consistency. The above suggestions may help students in following the right example and distinguishing between what is valuable and what is not.
During one’s teaching career, one might come across an exceptional talent. In such a case, it is important to evaluate the child’s limits and use them to determine the amount of workload. Sometimes talent is accompanied by a success-oriented family background, which might even hinder the child’s progress.
When students enter upper primary education and require more independence, teachers must rethink the way they teach (Varró, 1991). It is important that students should continue to have the same values, which could define their subsequent career and can be used by good teachers as a strong foundation. At this age, children are more independent, which is not surprising as one of the goals of education is increased independence. Furthermore, the ability to practise at home, unsupervised, to a high standard, is also developed. Students start to realise that in music, it is not just the end result that counts but also the activity which leads there (Duffek, 2015). At the end of this period, parents realise that individual practice is more permanent than if it is done together. Children’s sleep need increases, often leading to problems, which can be resolved by a sensible schedule, designed in cooperation with the parents. The cooperation might be hindered by children’s reluctance against direct education, which is typical at that age. Another characteristic is the critical tone towards parents and teachers. Occasionally, students cannot evaluate realistically the faults in their own performance, when it is advised to make a sound recording and let the student point out the error. Unfortunately, the age group is prone to dropping out, which is not surprising considering what teenagers go through emotionally. However, if people get to love music through positive experiences in their early teenage years, they are likely to endure and establish a life-long intimate relationship with music, possibly even transferring it to future generations. Sometimes students of this age apply to music schools, without the parents’ influence. It is important to pay special attention to them because applying by themselves could mean a significant sacrifice for them, with frequent cynical comments from friends and family. Sessions should be diverse, since variety is instrumental at this age.
Only a slight proportion of students in secondary and tertiary education make the commitment to apply to a music school to learn to play an instrument. They are usually overburdened but are more enthusiastic than students of any other age. Students who completed music school entirely under one teacher’s supervision and continue to attend sessions even when they study can discuss their problems in a more relaxed and confident way with their instructor than, for example, with their parents. Most of them find joy in playing an instrument. One of the well-known mechanisms of psychology is the defence mechanism, which helps reign in instincts to protect the individual from anxiety and problems with self-image. It is some sort of denial, whereby the stress could be “played away”. It is in this age group when many people find their way back to their instrument. Presumably, the self-reflection common at this age can be traced back to the patience and understanding provided by the parents.
Different Forms of Behaviour
Arguably, every child is talented in some form, even if it is not evident even to the teacher. If the talent is discovered, teachers can look up to the child, whose personal traits might help teachers in their work.
Here, I summarise the forms of behaviour which I encountered during my career by listing the most common characteristics, which could help music instructors in tackling potential problems in music education.
I have often encountered so-called phlegmatic students, who are balanced and patient, but do not possess adaptability and are characterised by emotional monotony. They can be motivated by tasks which pose a sizable challenge either technically or musically.
Sanguine students are usually high-spirited and possess dynamic traits. They are prone to become complacent, when, despite promises, they do not practise anymore at home. I suggest them to make a table with all their tasks, including practice. Occasionally, minor sanctions might be put in place if the child’s psychologic disposition allows. Examination should be consistent. Joint practice during sessions is good and useful but, with time, might become disadvantageous as it discourages individual work. It is easier to put off practising at home if practising with the teacher is regular. Selecting the right pieces, which provides encouragement and is not a hindrance, is important for students. The instructor’s presentation is an integral part of piece selection, which should also consider the student’s psychological disposition and nature (Varró, 1989).
Choleric students have a strong will and are passionate but irritable. They are often maximalists, which is why instructors should not teach overly complicated pieces to them because that might work as discouragement and could lead to attrition.
Melancholic students are characterised by lasting emotional processes, have a strong sense of responsibility, and are usually persistent with their instrumental training. Although they are responsible, they often face anxiety and low self-esteem. Their lack of flexibility also means a lack of mobility. Such students should be encouraged to perform regularly because they are relatively more prone to stage fright. It is advised for them to perform pieces of strong character, which could help their development of instrumental play substantially.
The listed behavioural types might not describe a certain person, but everybody displays one to a certain extent. These traits should be recognised, identified, and addressed accordingly by teachers.
Countering Student Attrition
Student attrition is a highly important subject, which deserves a separate chapter.
During one’s teaching career, it is a frequent experience that students decide to discontinue their music education seemingly suddenly. As the phenomenon is investigated more thoroughly, it becomes increasingly complex.
As far as I know, attrition in music education has not been studied extensively, although the problem was articulated by the recently formed Curriculum Committee as early as 11 December 1962. The Committee was convened to define the goal, purpose, requirements, and coherence of primary music education. It was believed that only musical experience could provide the foundation, starting point, and even the success of the entire education process. It was discussed on the meeting that music education without instrumental play was becoming a mass of information or a production of inappropriately sterilised musical elements, with adverse consequences at the primary level.
The reasons for a child to give up an instrument could be varied. Adolescence is a high-risk period for discontinuing music education. At this age, children have gone through several years of instrumental training. The initial magic has perhaps faded; practising, to which more time should be allocated, is no longer pleasurable. Students might have the feeling that they put in too much time and effort for too little success. At this age, there are no community experiences which encourage and motivate students: for example, they do not participate in a chamber ensemble or orchestra anymore and perform with declining regularity. Adolescents are exceptionally curious, experiment with various fields, and try to test their own limits and the boundaries set by their environment. If parents force music education onto them, it might also discourage them. If they perceive that other fields could reward them with more experiences and success, they often decide to leave music. I have seen that attrition rates were especially high with a certain teacher. In this case, a discussion was held with the teacher to find out what was wrong. Since each situation has been different, it is difficult to define a universal solution to the problem. It is not advisable to blame the circumstances, students, or parents. Almost invariably, it is the teacher who needs to rethink and alter the current practice.
In conclusion, the most important factor is personal attention.
One of the most valuable elements of Hungarian primary music education is that sessions are held with one student present. In personalised education, the teacher’s skills, for example the way of dividing the material across sessions, are decisive. It is difficult to fill every second with information to maintain the child’s attention, while keeping the personal attention towards the student can also be challenging.
The beginning determines the atmosphere of an entire session. There are some minor things to keep in mind which help loosen the tension which is initially present at almost any session.
Most factors which instructors should consider before the session begins are rather simple. The child entering the room should be greeted with a smile and offered a place to sit, thus creating an amicable atmosphere. If the previous session with another student has not ended yet, the recently arrived student can be involved in the activity in a way which provides both with experience and an opportunity for improvement. For example, the recently arrived student could be asked to listen to the other student’s performance. Both the listening student and teacher should thereafter praise the performing student, providing a source of joy and self-esteem. This is a positive message for both students. First, the listening student’s opinion is valued; second, the performing student can be proud to show the performance to somebody else. The short time when two students are present in the room should be used, if possible, for playing music together. This does not require a similar level of knowledge from the students’ part. The more experienced student is happy to “teach” the less experienced peer, who in turn is always open to advice from seniors. Importantly, teachers should pay attention to both students equally, who should both feel valued in the situation. The execution of this task depends on the teacher’s skills and creativity.
Many teachers might not realise it during their career but the other component of personalised attention is also very important. When only the child is present in the session, the teacher should devote complete attention to him or her. There are small gestures which, however, are quite impactful: it is advised to compliment a new hairstyle or piece of clothing. If such changes do not go unnoticed, it signals to students that they matter and are looked after. If students are in an unusual mood, the reason for that can be asked. If they decide to share the reason, it should be discussed briefly. It often relieves stress and anxiety if children can discuss their problem, which should be listened to attentively and with empathy. However, it is not our task as teachers to resolve our students’ problems; we might not need to offer any advice. It is an important information for the teacher though as to what has occurred with the child before the session. Such a discussion might save teachers from misunderstandings and miscommunication.
Teaching Methodology
Introduction
Double bass instruction cannot be classified as regular instrumental education for various reasons. Most students have already learned to play another (preferably bow) instrument or choose the double bass due to their age or build. It is very rare for children in lower primary education to express a desire to play the double bass. Those who choose the instrument are invited to the chamber orchestra of the music school or are asked to participate in different productions quite early on, since the role of the bass in any musical genre or style is unquestionable and indispensable.
To address most questions arising during education, we must often consider one principle only, namely the principle of naturality.
Principles
The Principle of Follow-up
Firstly, and perhaps most importantly, homework follow-up and evaluation should be done in every session. It is crucial to discuss with the student potential difficulties and negative or positive experiences which came up during practising. When the practised piece is performed, the entire homework should be listened to. Naturally, it may occur that students do not manage to play the entire piece, in which case we must encourage them to enhance their concentration (Megyimóreczné, 2015).
During follow-up, it is possible that we have to loosen previous expectations. If we put emphasis on marked errors only and let minor ones slide, the student is likelier to emerge with a sense of accomplishment (Megyimóreczné, 2015). The principle of continuity, whereby the teacher draws the student’s attention to the indispensable factors of performance every time, is also important to assist the internalisation of instructions.
The Principle of Regularity
Students should be educated towards regularity even at the beginning, because regular work is the only method to warrant success in the future. In the vast majority of cases, students are not partners in the process, which, however, can be attributed to their age, especially with younger students. If we work consequently and attentively from the beginning, there is a possibility for students to continue the pattern throughout their careers. Teachers must be patient and should rely on the principle of understandability. The most important aspects in the learning process of a piece are the rhythm and the beat, followed by the notes, execution, and character. The learning process is completed with the dynamics and musical message. At the beginning of the process, expectations should not be too high as continuity is required. Students are different in their abilities. If they make a mistake, it is not advised to scold them on every occasion. Often it is better to let minor inaccuracies slide because it is not possible to correct each mistake at the beginning of the learning curve. Sometimes the position of the bow hand is inadequate during a difficult shift, but we must evaluate its importance in the given moment. Mistakes of this kind are easy to correct once shifting is done more confidently. Invariably, results can only be achieved through a slow learning tempo. We must not let students’ ability to play a section be restricted to a “narrow” tempo interval even with ideal circumstances and the exclusion of disturbing factors. According to a universal truth: what can be played slowly can also be played quickly, but not the other way around. We may even specify the number of times the student must practise the section with a certain beat per minute value.
Students are also different in their physique. If we observe that students have longer or shorter fingers, which possibly even “break”, it is important to remind them when teaching thumb position about their different anatomic characteristics compared to their peers. We should attempt to correct the problems regularly, session after session. The solution to the problem must always be addressed. This could materialise in a physical exercise or any individual idea. Problems of this kind are to be tracked continuously, but students must not be discouraged from music education.
It is imperative not to discourage students from music education. Fields where difficulties arise should be improved regularly and patiently.
The Principle of Consistency
If, besides regularity, we are also consistent in uncovering problems and finding solutions, we are on the right path in achieving our principles and successful education. We must be consistent with respect to style, partitioning, and character. Misunderstandings should be avoided because another approach for the same thing might not be unambiguous for students. It is also important remain credible as it is the only way to achieve an independent work ethic and extensive prospects in students.
The Principle of Graduality
One of the most important principles in teachers’ activity is the progress from less towards more. Once bowing is acceptable, the position of the left hand should be taught next. If we attempt to focus on both things, problems will arise for both hands due to the division of attention. Pieces and etudes should be selected with special regard to students’ abilities. If we teach talented students, we may try to teach more difficult pieces which they would take as a challenge. The selected compositions should always correspond to the pedagogical and professional criteria necessary for becoming a good instrumental player. Occasionally, students are stubborn and only learn from their mistakes. In that case, we must make compromises for personal experience.
Didactics of Double Bass Instruction
Introduction of the Instrument
On the first session, I introduce the double bass and its most important parts. I show how to hold the instrument and illustrate the most important aspects to be observed which the student needs to check before and during practice. After establishing the relation between instrument and body, we start with the bow arm. After presenting the proper bow position and the movement of the right arm, I pass the bow to the student, who tries to sound strings D and A. These are the two strings in natural and reachable distance, so they can be sounded in the standard position without much effort. In the meantime, of course, I correct any mistake, ranking them in importance.
The Position of the Instrument
By adjusting the endpin, the height of the instrument must be modified until the nut is at eye level. The body weight should be placed on the right foot, while the left foot should be placed half a step further. The instrument should be tilted and rested on the left knee and groin (Bordás, 1995).
The Position of the Bow
The bow is held correctly if the stick is felt by the thumb from above and by the index and middle fingers from the side, while the little finger holds the frog. The frog is supposed to fit the palm exactly. The bow should be held the same way as a pencil is lifted from below.
Bowing
The right arm and wrist should be loose, but the right arm should not break in the elbow. When guiding the bow, the arm should be extended but not stiff, rather hanging down. There is no need to hold the bow, it should be guided only. The direction which was initiated at the frog should be kept throughout. Bowing should be taught on empty strings. Importantly, the bow should always be parallel to the bridge. It is crucial to internalise the movements of the hand, arm, and shoulder muscles. It is advised to initiate from the G string and connect the adjacent strings. If this is successful, the direction should be reversed from the lower strings towards upper ones. The learning process of bowing generally requires 3–4 weeks, when the stiff grip on the bow is a frequent problem as it is tiring and makes the performance expressionless. The secret of the loose grip lies in the ability to relax and energise. Before touching the bow, the arm should be hung down and relaxed by shaking it from the shoulder. After this, bowing may begin. Often, the reason for stiffness is due to the longer bridge of the instrument at home compared to the one in the music school, which makes the student exert more force with the left hand.
Bowing Technique
The bow arm determines the volume, toughness, and softness of the sound as well as the connection or separation of the note. The perfect tone in sound production is characterised by purity, wholeness, and expressive force, which result from humans’ innate abilities. The teacher has the task to guide and assist the development of this ability. The bow consists of the following: the stick, hair, frog, and the pointy tip. The bow hair stretches about 53–58 centimetres and weighs 120–140 grams. The slightly bent stick is made of pernambuco, birch, maple, beech, or pear. The hair may be white or black. Black hair is coarser, so it is used in orchestral play. Nowadays, the frog is made of ebony, but it also used to be made of bone. The ring frog is more advantageous because it keeps the hairs evenly distributed and prevents them from sticking together. In this way, the hair touches the string on a larger surface. In addition, the bow is provided with a screw mechanism for adjusting the tension of the hair. Everyone needs to experience the adequate length and frog height for comfortable play. The frog must fit exactly into the player’s hands and give the feeling that the length and weight of the bow is proportional to the thickness of the strings and the distance of the string from the overstand. In bowing, the bow must not only be guided but also held, so the bow must be pressed against the string, which requires additional energy. This can cause stiffness in the bow arm, which is very disadvantageous in some performance styles (“spiccato”, “staccato”) (Montag, 1986).
There are three bowing techniques: German, French and Italian. In the Hungarian practice, the German one is usually taught and used in place of French bowing, which is similar to that of a cello in terms of the position, among others. Italian bowing is different from the French one in that the thumb touches the bottom of the slide, not the stick. When holding the bow with the thumb, which is on top, it is important to be able to apply pressure to the stick. The index finger has the role of holding bow on the side, while the middle finger supports the bow, just like the little finger. When changing strings, the decisive factors are the location of the stroke (along the bow), the type of stroke (“legato”, “spiccato”, “staccato”), and whether the change occurs to the adjacent string or is omitted. In the latter case, the other string should be approached with the hair so that it is easily accessible at the moment of transition.
In the case of adjacent strings, the player must be careful to ensure that the string transition coincides with the bow change. The tasks is more difficult for alternating string transitions, where the bow must be kept close to the two strings to form a continuous transition. In this case, the movement of the arm may help. If the string transition is bypassing the strings, one must stop the bow before the string transition and then swing it silently to the other string, which requires considerable practice. The movement of the arm is also very important here. Playing string transitions where the string is closer to the fingerboard means, at the same time, that strings are also closer to each other, so it is worth playing there (Papp, 2015). In determining the bowing order for two, three, or four notes of equal value and volume, the bow must also be divided into two, three, or four equal parts. When using dynamic shades, the bowing order will change accordingly. The bowing order also plays a role in the type of stroke. It is advisable to play “forte” parts at the frog of the bow and the “piano” parts at the tip. When playing long-lasting notes, one makes a slow and long stroke; fast, “détaché” notes are to be played in the middle of the bow, briefly; passionate parts are played with a quick and long stroke.
Bowing on and off the Beat
We apply down bow for downbeats and up bow for upbeats, but occasionally the opposite is true when required by the piece. This is called structural bowing order. According to the objective, playing, say, downbeats in the other direction should not be unfamiliar.
Wrist Exercises
Students who have problems with loosening their wrist with two strings should practise bow change for quarter and eighth notes, perhaps skipping strings.
Rosining of the Bow
The rosin changes its hardness according to the weather. There are five different possibilities for the hardness of the rosin. No.1 is the softest for cold weather, No.5 is for hot weather. The harder rosin is pulled along the hair three to four times and then, according to the weather, the process should possibly be repeated with soft resin. Of course, we need to apply more on thicker strings. In the case of little or inadequate rosining, the bow will not hold or a course sound will be produced, so the rosin should touch the entire surface of the hair, fastening the string evenly. Tried rosin brands include Petz from Vienna, Ghys from Paris, and Dentro from Munich, but these are no longer available commercially. Instead, the following rosins are used: Kolstein, Pops (USA), Nyman (Sweden) (Montag, 1986).
The Position and Activity of the Left Hand
Initially, the technique for left hand should be practiced without the bow, in half position on the G string. The fingers should resemble a claw with the fingertips perpendicular to the string, with the first, second, and fourth fingers taking a half note. One must be careful to keep the first and second fingers apart for intonation. The finger should press the string firmly but not rigidly, as it would hinder agility (Papp, 2015). The thumb should be located below the neck, below the middle finger, providing counterpressure and support. The elbow should not be too low nor too high and must follow the path of the left hand. The student should play the notes of the half position on the G string, from high to low, while we adjust the position and intonation. If this goes without difficulty, the next element of practice should be the reverse, namely low to high from G to B-flat, but the student should identify and name first the upcoming note before striking it. Students who have large hands may experience their fingers break, which is a common problem. To eliminate this, it is recommended to practice tilting with curved left hand position without the bow. When using the fingertips, the left hand can exert more force, and the instrument is capable of a higher volume.
For the double bass, the first, second, and fourth fingers should be used in lower positions, while the third finger is to be applied from the 6th position. The thumb is used in upper positions, roughly from the 7th position (Bordás, 1995).
When the work of either hand is internalised, the two hands should be used together is placed in half position, where it is important that the correct hand position is constantly checked. Bowing exercises and tone enhancements should be performed at different rhythms, while the position should also be monitored. Double bowing is important, which means that all notes should be played twice, with a down bow on downbeats and an up bow on upbeats. These exercises should be combined with 4/4 and then 3/4 rhythm counting (that is, the student should count singing), which improves the student’s hearing, sense of rhythm, and musical memory. If the student is stuck in an improper habit of bowing or left hand position, exercises that correct this should be applied, but the right hand should not be left idle, either.
Energising and Relaxing
The concept refers to inciting the muscles with force and then relaxing and resting them. It is important to move only the muscles which are needed to perform the movements, so the aim is to make muscles independent from each other. The foundation is the relaxation of the muscles. For example, if one wants to keep a long “forte” sound steady, it requires more force for the down bow and less force for the up bow, which can be achieved by partially and gradually energising and relaxing the muscles. In “crescendo”, the proper muscles must be energised. “Decrescendo” is much harder because the muscles need to be relaxed gradually. This is also the case with “fortepiano”, “sforzato”, and “subito-piano”. However, the ability to relax the muscle is the most needed with “staccato”, whereby one needs to constantly energise and relax the muscles in a fast-paced and steady alternation (Montag, 1986). With “tremolo”, one muscle group must be relaxed and the other energised.
Finger Movement
The movement, build, position, strength, agility, and ability to perform movement phases of the fingers have long been studied, but the field is rather unexplored for the double bass. “The speed of progress and improvement in technique depends on the movement of the hands and fingers. Players with long and agile fingers have an advantage in pieces requiring difficult technique, while those with short fingers and bulky hands are better suited for beautifully toned, espressivo compositions” (Montag, 1986, p.29). When studying the movement of fingers, we need to examine the usability of the fingers for each movement phase and determine the finger which can perform a given function with the least effort. Based on their build, strength, position and usability, fingers are classified as strong or weak. The thumb, index and middle fingers are classified as strong, the third and fourth fingers as weak.
Thumb
It is the strongest finger and, by its nature, is the most independent of the other fingers. In the lower register until the fourth position, it only has a supporting role, which means that the thumb provides resistance for the other fingers. For higher positions, it functions as a sound-producing finger. It provides a fixed foundation for the hand in these positions and makes shifting in position changes safe and definite. The Simandl book contains strengthening and developmental exercises for the extreme fingers, namely the thumb and the little finger, which help in avoiding finger problems.
First Finger (Index Finger)
It belongs to the fingers used in the lower and middle positions and is the most agile finger. Its relation to the string is highly favourable. It falls on the string like a claw, vertically, forming a sort of grip system with the thumb. By approaching it perpendicularly towards the string, one can exert a great force with it. In addition, it is the best suited for tracing the position of the notes. We also use the index finger to change position through shifting.
Second Finger (Middle Finger)
It is the second strongest finger after the thumb. It is used to play notes which require considerable force as well as distant notes due to its length. It is most effective in tone formation, but it is also useful for “glissando”, that is, a position change through shifting. Positions which require stretching can only be achieved by stretching the middle finger, while other fingers can be both stretched and expanded. The middle finger, especially in lower positions, can also pass over, that is, cross over the preceding finger. Therefore, it is useful for playing fourths, among other things (Montag, 1986).
Third Finger (Ring Finger)
It belongs to the weaker fingers. It is connected to the fourth finger through a common tendon sheath, which affects its mobility. This finger is the best suited for a soft “vibrato”, but it can also be effective for shorter “glissandos”, and in some cases it can be used for barre chords.
Fourth Finger (Little Finger)
Due to its shorter and weak build, it plays an important role in the 1st position, which is why it is the most used finger in orchestral play after the first finger. It touches the string with the finger pad. It is necessary to work a lot with the little finger to make it exert the required effort and improve the movement technique. It is best used for vibrato in lower and middle registers.
Fingering
Fingering is the order of applied fingers during performance. In the days before fingerings were specified, performers played irregularly, and generally only one finger of the left hand was used, namely the little finger. The fingerboard was simply gripped to press down the string, which is the so-called “fist technique” (Faust technique). Later, it was realised that no technique could be applied without fingering, so the fingering was marked with numbers, which are still in use today. The following notation is used: 0-empty string, 1-first finger (index finger), 2-second finger (middle finger), 3-third finger (ring finger), 4-fourth finger (small finger), 0-thumb in “flageolet”, 0-thumb pressing down the string. The following finger markings are used for thumb positions: 1-first finger, 2-second finger,
3-third finger, 4-fourth finger. During the historical evolution of the double bass, three fingering systems were developed:
- Central European (Czech or German) fingering system, which is also used in Hungary. In the basic position, the 1, 2, 4-fingering is to be followed.
- Italian or French fingering system, where fingers 1, 3, and 4 are also used in low positions. This is not advantageous because, due to longer distances, the third finger is more difficult to move in a low position than in the thumb position when altering the hand posture.
- Northern (Swedish) fingering system, where fingers 1, 2, 3, and 4 are also used in low positions (Bordás, 1995). This technique only works for players with large hands, because those with a small hand can only reach the notes by extending the hand. This makes the performance difficult and causes pain in the hand.
Clear performance is achieved by keeping a large distance between the first and second fingers, and a smaller one between the third and fourth fingers due to the semitone distance. Additionally, the finger before the one on the string should also be pressed down to provide support. Adherence to the fingering is also important because it guarantees the best solution with the least movement (fewest position changes) (Papp, 2015). Some position changes can be replaced by stretching, but it is often easier to perform two quick position changes because too much stretching causes the hand to stiffen, so this is not the best solution. Performers in orchestras must be entirely knowledgeable about fingering as they often have to perform what is in the score at first glance. One can prepare for this by regularly playing scales of two to three octaves with chords of three or four notes and by practising double positions. Fingering plays a major role in articulation and the interpretation of a musical sentence. Different bowing may require different fingering. The fingering is also altered when playing “legato” or “staccato”.
Pure Intonation
Intonation is the sounding of a note with the proper clarity of pitch. It depends on two things: proper pitch and firm fingering. Proper pitch is an innate ability, which can be one of two kinds: absolute and relative pitch. Absolute pitch means that students are able to recognise accurately the pitch of the musical note and intonate precisely, that is, they can sing the note, as opposed to relative pitch, whereby students can determine the interval between two notes of different pitch. We distinguish between absolute pure intonation and relative pure intonation. In music education, the latter is usually more frequent and can be improved later. Singing the practice material helps a lot, but practising scales and chromatic scales can also assist intonation.
Chromatic Sequences and Their Intonation
The chromatic scale consists strictly of consecutive semitones. When ascending, we mark it with a “sharp”; when descending, the notation is the “flat”. In order to play the chromatic scale clearly, the position of the fingers on the strings must be relative to the fingering of notes on a diatonic scale. The higher the note, the narrower the distance between the notes of the scale, even though the characteristics of the hand would require the opposite.
About Practising
Not even skilled artists can miss multiple days of practising, because it becomes immediately apparent in their play. The aim of regular practising is to improve the specific technical skills of the left and right hands, to achieve fluent sight reading, and to finetune the performance. It is recommended for students to always use the same instrument and bow. They have to get used to the height and scale length of the instrument, the weight and elasticity of the bow, and the tightness of the hair. It is important to internalise the proper movements. We should gradually condition ourselves to extensive practising, but it is important to take a break while we prepare our mind for the task. This is the essence of conscious practising. Thinking slowly is crucial because it gives students time to study themselves while playing, which is very important for evolving self-control. Beginners may experience muscle soreness until they get used to practising. It is very important to check the proper position of the instrument and the left hand in front of a mirror during practice.
Condition Exercises
Practising scales, finger exercises, etudes, which help improve and maintain technical skills.
Disposition Exercises
Disposition exercises help with the adjustment of the bow arm for performance, but it is necessary to warm up both arms at the same time. First, bowing exercises must be performed, which help to create a rounded tone, then rhythmic exercises should follow, because accurate rhythm is an essential aspect performing in an orchestra. Error elimination exercises should be done with students who constantly make the same mistake (Montag, 1986).
Stability of the Double Bass
The instability of the double bass was the reason why it became one the solo instruments so late. For a long time, the technical capabilities did not permit players to execute difficult positions and play large interval steps because the instrument was too heavy and swayed as a result. Some performers tried to overcome the problem by balancing the instrument when playing difficult parts, but this was not a viable solution as intonation still posed a major difficulty. While sitting, the instrument rests on the body, which, however, restricts freedom of movement. The shortening or extension of the endpin did not resolve the problem, either. A sense of stability is very important on the instrument but is only achievable when the fingers are pressed to the strings. However, it stops immediately when playing on empty strings, performing “flageolet” sounds, and shifting to the thumb position, because there is not enough support. It is up to the player to harmonise the pressure on the string and the applied resistance, and to ensure that the instrument does not move during performance. Stability is also enhanced by the balance in weight between the scroll and the body. If the height of the instrument and the shape of the body is adjusted to the player, easy access to the instrument is warranted. Therefore, the upper bout should not be too wide and the upper back should lean forward. Stability is also enhanced if the endpin is integrated to the saddle at the belly and not in the middle. Importantly, the neck should be inserted into the body at an angle which permits the player to easily rest the instrument on the shoulder as early as the 5th position (Montag, 1986). For the sake of expediency, the thickness of the neck should be increased at the expense of the fingerboard. In addition, the thickness of the neck as well as the distance between the strings on the nut and the bridge should correspond to the measurements of the player’s hand.
Tone
At the same pitch, each of the 4 strings produces a different tone. The tone is also not the same when we play at the centre, frog, or tip of the bow. The volume is higher at the frog, while the proximity of the tip is suitable for “piano” or lighter play. Tone differences also arise along the string. When playing close to the bridge, the result is a hard, cold, and glassy sound called “sul ponticello”. In this case, the entire surface of the hair on the bow should touch the string. The term “naturel” indicates normal performance and the “sulla tartiera” refers to bowing over the fingerboard, resulting in a soft and dull tone. We also get a different tone when touching the string with full or half hair. For “spiccato”, “tremolo”, or “sul ponticello”, we use full hair. Playing with the bow pressed to the strings also results in a special tone (Montag, 1986). The string can be sounded in different ways: “pizzicato” (plucking, light tone), “sordino” (muted performance, cryptic sound), “flageolet” (string harmonic, fading, wind-like sound), “col legno” (striking the string with the stick of the bow, onomatopoeic effect).
“Pizzicato” (Plucking)
The instrument should be sounded by plucking the string. It is used most frequently in symphonic music and especially in jazz music. Since the double bass has thick strings, it takes a lot of effort to pluck them, while it also matters where the string is plucked. When playing a “pizzicato”, the thumb is placed against the side of the fingerboard and we pluck with first, second, or third finger. “It is only worth it if the duration of practice for ‘pizzicato’ is extended because the fingers need to be strengthened first” (Montag, 1986). “Pizzicato” play of the left hand facilitates the work of the right hand, enables the transition to “col arco” performance, and improves the continuity of “pizzicato” parts.
Playing with a Mute (“Sordino”)
Applying a mute reduces the volume of the sound, but it also changes the tone. The double bass mute is a three-tooth comb made of wood or metal, which is secured to the bridge, so the vibration of the bridge and instrument body changes. The intensity and tone of the muted sound depends on the material of the mute. The mute also eliminates the additional noise caused by the friction between the bow hair and the string, resulting in a clear and soft but rather faint sound. The mute is mostly requested in orchestral play, while it should only be used during practice when the sound would be a distraction to the outside world. The use of the mute is denoted as “con sordino” and is terminated by “senza sordino”.
“Col legno” (Sound Effect through Striking the Bow)
The sound is not created using the hair of the bow but by striking the string with the stick of the bow. There are two types: rhythmic and sounding “col legno”. For example, the rhythmic “col legno” is applied for csárdás, whereby the empty string is struck with the stick of the bow, producing a unique noise. This option is for rhythm only as it has no melody. As for the sounding “col legno”, the pressed down string is struck with the stick of the bow, which also permits melody. Pulling the stick of the bow along the string is a special application of “col legno”.
“Schlagbass” (Struck Bass)
In this application, plucking is combined with the striking of the hand on the string fingerboard, which means that the plucking is altered through the stroke. It is especially common in jazz.
Snap “Pizzicato”
The string is pulled away from the fingerboard and it rebounds to produce a snapping sound. This sound effect is found in Bartók’s Divertimento, among others.
“Vibrato”
It is the way of sounding notes whereby the sound is vibrated by the finger on the string, resulting in an alternating pitch with uniform waves for a vivid, soft, and full sound. Long notes are the most suitable for it, especially in solos, but it is also often used for short notes because it emphasises dynamics, especially when increasing volume. Its effect depends on the speed of vibration, where it is advisable to find the middle ground. One should vibrate neither too fast nor two slowly. “Vibrato” should be slightly slower on thicker strings and faster on thinner strings and for higher pitches. The left wrist should always remain loose, and there should be a balance between the speed and intensity of the vibration, between the loose wrist and the amplitude. “Vibrato” should be played by one finger because, if the second finger is pressed down next to the first one, we get a distorted “vibrato”, which significantly reduces the quality of the performance. Since the role of the left hand as support during “vibrato” is considerably reduced, the stability of the instrument should also be considered. The vibrating movement must be done flexibly, that is, through energising and relaxing, and not by force but by the weight of the hand. We should not exaggerate the use of “vibrato”. Leopold Mozart said in his violin textbook: “There are violinists who vibrate every sound as if they had a perpetual fever” (Montag, 1986, p.33).
“Tremolo”
It is the way of sounding notes in a continuous and steady rhythm within a set value, through quickly alternating up and down bows. The length of the “tremolo” is determined by the requirements of the piece. It should usually be played at the middle of the bow, occasionally also be at the tip or the frog. “Tremolo must be played with relaxed muscles and loose bowing, otherwise it will have no effect, but the entire surface of the bow hair must be placed on the string” (Montag, 1986, p.33). It is mostly used in orchestral pieces. Its density is determined by the number of strokes on the note stem.
Interrupted “Tremolo” (“Tremolo Intermittente”)
The “tremolo” is interrupted at short intervals. The bow strikes the string or is dropped on the string so that the bow bounces several times due to its own elasticity. This is worth doing in the upper third of the bow. It is only applicable if the “tremolo” has a maximum of 6–8 notes.
“Glissando”
Two notes a certain interval apart are connected by a fast, smooth, and sliding motion. It was often used in Romantic music and is also common in modern music to achieve aural effects. The glissando should be done by one finger on one string. It is not allowed to spend too much time on the initial note.
“Arpeggio” (Harp-like)
The notes of the chord, like on the harp, are broken into a sequence of notes, so each voice is more or less abbreviated. “Arpeggio” is played with one bow and the fracture usually occurs from above to below. The first note of the chord should be slightly stressed, and it is also important to keep the fingers of the left hand on the string. The right wrist must always be loose (Papp, 2015). One of the types of “arpeggio” is to play several chords in rapid succession, on 3 or 4 strings, with a rapidly moving bow.
Ornamentations (“Fiorette”)
Early instruments such as the “viola da gamba” and the “harpsichord” required the intensive use of ornaments because it resulted in a rich sound on these relatively silent instruments. Some musical embellishments are specified using small notes, while the most frequent ones have their separate sign and are less prescribed. The ornaments are played connected to the main note with one bow, except for longer trills, where bow change is inevitable.
Sight Reading
It is essential to read any musical piece at first sight for orchestral performance. This skill can usually only be acquired through long practice. There are many obstacles to sight reading: fingering, positions, tempo, and technical solutions, for which musicians can prepare by playing the new piece (etude, exercise) at the original tempo with the specified fingering, thus forcing themselves to concentrate.
Transposition
It is worth practising transposition by advancing step by step. First, the musician plays the exercise a semitone or whole tone higher or lower, and once it goes well, one can practise transposition with a “third” or “sharp”.
Order and Discipline in the Orchestra
Discipline is an essential part of any activity. We must distinguish between external and internal discipline. External discipline includes members’ arrival to rehearsals and performances on time, timely preparations, and disciplined behaviour, for which the director of the orchestra is accountable. Internal discipline refers to the discipline within the section, for which the section leader is responsible. It is the section leader’s task to manage the unified work of a section in the orchestra with individual ideas and decisions, which should also be acceptable to the conductor as well. Since the orchestra often plays with a guest conductor, it is always advisable to appoint experienced musicians as section leaders, who can discuss the sensitive details with the conductor, who in turn gives verbal guidance on how to solve these issues (Montag, 1986). It is the section leader, not the conductor, who is responsible for how the tones and shadows are best brought out of the instrument. It is also the responsibility of the section leader to interpret artistic ideas correctly and to achieve the proper musical expression. If the execution does not go as planned, it is the section leader who is held accountable. “A ‘tutti’ player should never play louder than the section leader or enter before him; a ‘tutti’ player must always adapt to the leader” (Montag, 1986, p.34). There are also some unspoken rules which only an experienced musician can know. Often unexpectedly, regardless of the instructions, the conductor changes the tempo to enhance the musical expression, in which case it is necessary to be flexible, while also adapting to the soloist. When coming across photocopied versions of an old score, it is easy to notice the several inscriptions which are different from the original. In this case, one must rely on one’s instincts as to which solution is right.
References
- Bordás Tibor (1995): Nagybőgők és nagybőgősök [Double Basses and Double-Bassists]. Nemzeti Tankönyvkiadó, Budapest.
- Duffek Mihály (2015): Zongora szakmódszertan személyes hangolásban [Piano Teaching Methodology in Personal Tuning]. Debreceni Egyetemi Kiadó, Debrecen.
- Megyimóreczné Schmidt Ildikó (2015): Zongora hangszeres tanításmódszertani jegyzet [Teaching Methodology of Piano]. Pécs.
www.art.pte.hu/sites/www.art.pte.hu/files/files/menuk/dokument/ZI/pedpszich/zongora.pdf - Montag Lajos (1986): A nagybőgő tanítása [Teaching the Double Bass]. Manuscript. DE–ZK, Debrecen.
- Papp László (2015): Gordonka hangszeres tanításmódszertani jegyzet [Instrumental Teaching Methodology of Violoncello]. Pécs.
www.art.pte.hu/sites/www.art.pte.hu/files/files/menuk/dokument/tudomany/innovacio/zmi602_gordonka_20151006.pdf - Varró Margit (1989): Zongoratanítás és zenei nevelés [Teaching Piano and Music Education]. Editio Musica, Budapest.
- Varró Margit (1991): Két világrész tanára [Teacher of Two Continents]. Zeneműkiadó, Budapest.