Historical Aspects of Rhythm Notation and Rhythm Sequences

Author: István Szabó

DOI: 10.5434/9789634902263/12

 

 

Abstract

For percussionists, rhythm notation represents more than a mere temporal sequence of music; it also assists the selection and execution of the appropriate technique. This musical execution is often dependent on the percussion instrument, although it is safe to argue that the movement sequence when sounding an instrument is independent of its size and proportions. Starting from the first beats, it is as crucial to learn and master movement routines as it is to understand and feel the time between notes, since these together enable one to play out rhythm notation precisely and internalise the correct motor processes. Applying the adequate movement sequences during the learning process consciously could result in substantial self-control abilities, which can also be utilised during practice. In the past centuries, the style of percussionists’ performance has transformed substantially due to the evolution of instruments and mallets, as well as performers’ efforts towards faster tempos. In this study, a brief overview on the history of percussion instruments is followed by the presentation of the technical evolution and milestones of how snare drums and other drums are played. When practicing percussion instruments, we must bear in mind the vast contribution of percussionists from bygone centuries, who laid the foundations of modern-day techniques either in wars or for others’ entertainment.

Keywords: tabor, snare drum, traditional grip, rudimental

 

 

For percussionists, rhythm notation represents more than a mere temporal sequence of music; it also assists the selection and execution of the appropriate technique. This musical execution is often dependent on the percussion instrument, although it is safe to argue that the movement sequence when sounding an instrument is independent of its size and proportions. Starting from the first beats, it is as crucial to learn and master movement routines as it is to understand and feel the time between notes, since these together enable one to play out rhythm notation precisely and internalise the correct motor processes. Applying the adequate movement sequences during the learning process consciously could result in substantial self-control abilities, which can also be utilised during practice. In the past centuries, the style of percussionists’ performance has transformed substantially due to the evolution of instruments and mallets, as well as performers’ efforts towards faster tempos. In this study, a brief overview on the history of percussion instruments is followed by the presentation of the technical evolution and milestones of how snare drums and other drums are played. When practising percussion instruments, we must bear in mind the vast contribution of percussionists from bygone centuries, who laid the foundations of modern-day techniques either in wars or for others’ entertainment.

 

Tabor – Snare Drum

People have known and used drums for a particularly long time. They were in use among Sumerians as well as in Ancient Greece. Little is understood about these instruments, however. Written records mention instruments of two different sizes. One record describes a player in the 12th century, who played a pipe made of bone with his left hand while using his right hand to provide rhythm on a small drum. The larger drums, namely the nakers of the Middle Ages, were antecedents to cavalry kettledrums and precursors to timpani in the modern symphonic orchestra (Soebbing, 1965; Blades, 1992).

It was the smaller of the two drums, the tabor, which was the early precursor to the present-day snare drum. The initial appearance of the instrument is mostly unknown and can only be inferred from a handful of drawings. At first, it was relatively small, but over time, its size changed substantially. The early instrument was held in the hand or fixed to the player’s hand or body. It was not sounded by itself but alongside a wind instrument such as a pipe in most cases. The player played the melody on the pipe while providing rhythmic accompaniment on the drum; in addition, he often even danced. As a consequence, the rhythms were not complicated.

In the early Middle Ages, tabor was an instrument with one skin: animal hide was stretched on one side of the wooden shell. In most cases, lambskin or calfskin was applied, but other hides such as goatskin or wolfskin were also in use. The membrane was stretched on the wooden shell with ropes, which enabled the tuning of the drum. To achieve higher volume, a rope made from skin and, later, from twisted catgut was stretched across the membrane. The tabor was played with a curved stick in the right hand. The use of two sticks became possible when the player sounded the instrument without the pipe, thus leaving a hand for each stick (Blades, 1992).

In the 14th and 15th centuries, the size of the tabor grew. Larger instruments with higher volume as well as the accompanying pipes were employed in the military, whereas smaller drums remained folk instruments. The larger instruments, which are considered to be precursors to the present-day snare drum, existed in various sizes and sounded like thunder. It was around this time when drums appeared in the first organised military bands as distinct instruments alongside wind instruments. Pipes and drums characterised the infantry, while trumpets and kettledrums were the instruments of choice for the cavalry (Soebbing, 1965). In Europe, infantry troops were organised based on Swiss example. The sound of infantry bands caused a similar surprise to the kettledrum, which was used in the Hungarian cavalry alongside brass instruments (Blades, 1992).

Swiss drumming has the longest recorded history, with written records as far back as the 12th century. Accounts document the establishment of an orchestra of drums and wind instruments in Basel in 1332. Around this time, the foundations of drumming were laid, which evolved into current styles and techniques over the centuries (Caron, 2010). The Swiss military was the first to use wind instruments and drums for military signals both in everyday operation and in battles. Without these signals, troops would have been more difficult to direct and communicate with. During the Crusades and other conflicts with Muslim armies, drums were crucial for communication but they also served as important tools of intimidation (Tomkins, 2011). Military musicians also played in peacetime, often to entertain people. In the 16th century, the most popular drummers came from the Swiss military band. Their instruments ranged two feet in height and twenty inches in diameter, which roughly corresponds to an instrument with dimensions of sixty and fifty centimetres, respectively. The calfskin membranes of these drums were stretched using ropes and hooks on both sides of the shell. The ropes enabled the appropriate pitch to be tuned (Soebbing, 1965). In the 16th century, the use of snare transformed: English drummers began to play two-headed drums, with the snare stretched over the lower membrane, which is not hit. The practice is still considered standard today. Drums were usually suspended from a strap worn over the shoulder and played throughout Europe using the asymmetrical technique which is now called traditional grip. Between the 16th and 19th centuries, this style and sound became accepted and popular in every court where Swiss mercenaries or the Swiss Guard were present. (They can still be seen and heard in Rome as papal guards.)

French drumming is historically close to the Swiss style. Until the 15th century, the tabor was a dominant folk instrument in France. Later it became a prominent instrument for Renaissance dance performers, and subsequently, under Swiss influence, developed into one of the most important military instruments (Blades, 1992).

In 15th century England, drums were also similar to the Swiss instruments. Around 1492, Henry VII invited Swiss drummers to the country. Subsequently, he also initiated the adoption of kettledrums in England.

 

Playing Techniques – Grips

Until the middle of the 18th century, the use and appearance of snare drums and military drums had been relatively constant. It was around that time when the metal shell appeared, gradually replacing wooden shells which had been used previously. The new shell proved to be more durable, produced higher volume, and, consequently, spread extensively. From the 19th century, the snare drum was featured increasingly in symphonic orchestras. At first, it was used to generate a military effect as it could be employed only in a limited way due to its rattling sound. The breakthrough came in 1837 with Cornelius Ward’s invention. He was the first to patent the snare strainer, which makes it possible to stop the constant rattle of the instrument. The invention enabled players to set the tension of the snare using metal clamps and tension rods connected to the snare (Soebbing, 1965). Since then, the snare drum has been a full member of percussion instruments in the symphonic orchestra.

In the 18th century, snare drum play was based on the traditional grip and the corresponding technique. As the instrument was carried on a sling over the right shoulder, it was tilted when marching. As a consequence, both hands could not be held in the same way: the left hand was lower, the right, higher. Due to the difference, the position of the grip in the left hand was not the same as in the right hand. James A. Strain studied extensively the method with which grips for each hand are taught in American primers as well as its historical evolution. Of many methodological treatises on the topic, one of the first was published by Samuel Potter in 1815. In this work, he describes the different position of the left and right hand with two similes: the right grip is similar to how one holds a sword, while the left grip resembles how a pen is held. With the right hand, one must grip the whole stick; in the left hand, the stick must be held between the thumb and ring fingers to create a space in the palm in which the stick rests (Strain, 2002).

According to Strain, Otto Langey’s work from 1891 provides the most accurate early description of hand positions. It reads: “The right stick is held between the first joint of the middle finger and the inside tip of the thumb at a point about four and one-half inches from the butt end. The remaining fingers curve under the stick and control it without interfering with its free action. The left-hand stick is held between the thumb and fore finger, the butt end lying in the hollow, passed between the second and third fingers, and rests on the first joint of the third finger, the butt end projecting out about the same distance as with the right hand. The tips of the fingers are bent towards the palm of the hand.” (Strain, 2002)

It can be argued that the above is indeed a most adequate guideline for those who are interested in the traditional grip and wish to learn it. Jazz drummers and those who play drum kits still learn and use the traditional grip. What is more, the asymmetrical grip is still in use among classical percussionists. Many orchestras today carefully maintain centuries-old traditions, including this style. It is also worth mentioning that the traditional grip may prove valuable in symphonic orchestras for players of the bass drum when, due to lack of an adjustable cradle which enables a tilted position, they must play a horizontally mounted instrument.

The first methodological study on the snare drum which focused on concert drumming instead of military practices was written in 1919 by Carl Gardner. He acknowledges that different grips should be used for different styles of music. Another methodological book, written by Haskell Harr and published in 1937, explicitly differentiates between the military, or rudimental, style and so-called light playing. He advises to “Grip the stick firmly with the second finger. The other fingers and the thumb close loosely around the stick”, he explains about the rudimental grip. As for the other grip for light playing, he writes: “Hold the hand in the same position as with the rudimental grip, placing the stick so that it will rest across the second joint of the first finger, then place the thumb on the stick opposite the second joint of the first finger, close the second finger as before, and turn the hand over for playing” (Strain, 2002).

In the 1940s, certain studies explored in detail the grip in both hands. In a work from 1942, Buddy Rich and Henry Adler explain grips in both hands for dance orchestra drummers as follows: “Grasp the stick with the thumb and first finger of the right hand, at about two thirds of the distance from the knob of the stick. The second, third and fourth fingers act in an auxiliary capacity as they aid in controlling the various movements of the stick. The palm of the hand is turned downward, upon striking the drum. The left hand stick is held at about two-thirds of the distance from the knob of the stick in the crotch formed by the thumb and first finger. The second finger, acting as a guide, is placed on top of the stick. The third and fourth fingers, placed under the stick, act in an auxiliary capacity, while controlling the ‘Swing’ of the stick. The palm of the hand is turned toward the body, upon striking the drum.” The authors then add: “After all of the rudiments and exercises in this book have been thoroughly learned, the student may then practise them by holding the sticks timpani fashion.” In this work, a similar grip in both hands is considered standard for the first time. It is advised for beginner percussionists to practise the symmetrical grip used on timpani alongside the asymmetrical grip (Strain, 2002).

In 1964, Joel Leach differentiates between three symmetrical grips based on the position of fingers. The first is the common or concert grip. The thumb and forefinger create the basis for this grip, while the middle finger is used for fine movements and the other fingers do not touch the stick. The second grip described by Leach is one which had already been in use in jazz and classical music. The thumb and forefinger constitute the foundation for the grip, but other fingers could also play a role. The author argues that this allows for a finer play with a wider range of sound sensitivity. He also highlights that, besides the two fingers responsible for the grip itself, the other fingers aid and control the use of the stick. The third grip he lists is the timpani style grip, which is not discussed extensively, however (Strain, 2002).

Since the end of the 20th century, it has been widely held in the teaching of percussion instruments that the symmetrical grip used on the timpani is the most adequate for beginner percussionists. As a result of various musical styles and methodologies, it is recognised that this grip is held with either the thumb and index finger or the thumb and middle finger, with the other fingers wrapped around the stick to correspond to the position. Different primers and music scores advocate numerous variations and methods besides the grips described above. It must be noted that two-mallet play of melodic percussion instruments such as the marimba or xylophone also follows a symmetrical grip. In this study, however, we do not explore the playing techniques of such instruments and the respective methods of how they are struck.

Steve Smith’s study, published in 2018, is intended primarily for drummers and not for classical percussionists, yet it contains valuable morals for any percussionist. In the work, he describes multiple grips which anyone can try and use. Smith began his instrumental studies with the asymmetrical traditional grip. He had used the traditional grip for a long time when he decided to give the symmetrical grip a try. To achieve this, he mimicked the grip and movement of the right grip to position the left hand. As many authors before him, he also finds it crucial that the hand and wrist should be static and the grip should be loose so the hand may move freely and the fingers may have considerable freedom (Smith, 2018). He makes a distinction between the grip and hand use of the German and French playing techniques. In the German grip, the wrist and the back of the hand face upwards, whereas with the French grip, the thumb has the top position and the palms face each other. Based on this, Smith differentiates between four grips.

The first is based on the hand position of the German style, whereby four fingers touch the stick as with the timpani grip, and the wrist turns downwards. The shoulders are flexible, the scapulae point downwards. The centre of mass of the stick is between the thumb and middle finger.

The second grip is a version of the first as its initial position follows the German grip, but the stick is held by the thumb and index finger. Other than the fingers by which the stick is held, the difference between the first and second grips also manifests itself in the open or closed nature of the position. In the first case, the wrist plays a greater role when the drum is struck; in the second case, however, the loose wrist permits a broader function for the fingers, thus enabling percussionists to play in a more nuanced way.

The third position is based on the French grip. The change in position implies an expanded role for the fingers in controlling the stick and the stroke. The stick is held at the first joint of the thumb and other fingers, with an upward pointing thumb and an inward facing palm. Smith argues that this grip enables a gentler sound to be produced on the instrument, while the use of the fingers permits a light and colourful performance.

The fourth grip is a modification of the third. The difference lies in the ring and little fingers being wrapped around the stick, with the first two fingers open and resting on it. Smith describes that the grip allows for great and loud sounds to be produced with little effort, so he recommends it to be used for special effects and emphasised sounds (Smith, 2018:8). The grip and the corresponding stroke are also known to timpanists, as they constitute an accepted and employed playing technique for grave and powerful sounds on the timpani.

 

Innovations in Playing Techniques

For centuries, percussion instruments have been played with mallets. Throughout time, the material, size, and weight of the mallet as well as the design of the heads have transformed substantially. Nowadays, numerous factors are considered in the manufacture of mallets, such as the size of the instrument, the quality of the sound to be produced, the musical material, and the player’s qualities. However, the sounding of the instrument is based on the same movement sequence, irrespective of the instrument and the playing style, since the basic strokes are the same everywhere. For the first basic stroke, the single stroke, the player produces a single hit, by either one hand or alternating hands. The second basic stroke is the double stroke, whereby two hits are produced by each hand. With the appropriate velocity, the sequence of double strokes produces a lasting sound called the roll or tremolo. This is known in German as Wirbel (Mühle), and in English as the roll. The combinations of the strokes and their use in the musical process have created diverse playing styles, which vary by culture and define percussion music even today.

Besides grips and hand positions, percussionists have always been fascinated by fast tempo and virtuosity. It is just as crucial to practise persistently and regularly as to establish technical skills with the least amount of effort on the percussionist’s part. According to the long-standing consensus, the process is aided by the tightness of the skin, the quality of the mallet, and the anatomy of hands. From a multitude of experimentations, two playing techniques must be highlighted, which were invented primarily for drums, but with attentive and careful preparation, percussionists may use these strokes and the corresponding movement sequences for other instruments, as well.

The so-called open/close technique is based on the harmony of the body and the movement structure of the hand. The hands are in a position between the German and the French grip, while the wrists are directed neither upward, nor sideways, but in an intermediate position. The hand position and the loose grip of the fingers enables greater control over the stick with relatively free movement. To execute the movement sequence, we must consider the natural movement of our body, which we should preserve as straight motions hardly occur in everyday life (Croy, 2003). The harmonious co-movement of the fingers and wrist is as essential for this technique as natural body motions are. If we observe ourselves, we can see that our fingers open naturally if the fist is bent downwards and, conversely, if the wrist moves upwards, the fingers close. The system which the American drummer Gordy Knudtson calls old drumming technique employs the movement sequence of pushing and hitting, in other words, an “up and down” motion. While the technique he calls “old drumming combination” produces one note, the new, so-called open/close technique produces two notes on the instrument with this motion. During the downward motion, the fingers open up and the membrane is hit. When the stick has rebounded, the fingers close to produce the second stroke. Simultaneously, the arm moves upwards to arrive at the starting position (Knudtson, 1999). Mastering the technique requires persistent and careful attention from the player. During practice, the strength of the fingers and strokes must be balanced as strokes with closed fingers are more powerful initially than those with open fingers. We must also get used to handling the rebound of the stick from the drumhead to produce secure and uniform sounds at varying paces.

Sanford Augustus Moeller (1879–1962), an American drummer born in Albania, developed a playing technique of similar logic. The sequence he devised, similarly to the open/close technique, enables multiple notes to be produced with the stick, namely three. When he was young, he also learned the traditional playing technique and used it in his drumming. He devised the playing technique named after him as an active practitioner. Subsequently, it was popularised by him and his students. The technique is based on the symmetrical grip to produce a natural and continuous movement sequence. In his description, the position of the sticks and the arms in front of the drum resembles a house: the sticks constitute the roof as they are positioned at a 45 degree angle. In Moeller’s metaphor, the arms symbolise the walls, that is, they face forward parallelly, next to the torso (Hessler, 2004). He also emphasised the importance of hand positions as well as the need for learning the appropriate grip and movement sequence to master the technique. As he saw it, the position of the hand plays just as a significant role in the tempo as in producing the sound. Furthermore, slight modifications in the grip are crucial in aiding the player to achieve a colourful playing technique, because they make it possible to adjust the centre of mass of the stick to influence the tempo and intensity. Moeller’s writings reveal that light strokes can be made with a grip of the thumb and index finger, while medium-intensity strokes are to be produced with the thumb and the middle finger. For loud and powerful drumming, the ring and little fingers should also assist the grip. The novel technique Moeller developed requires the hand to be held in a slightly tilted position, between the German and the French grip, so the wrist has the possibility to achieve greater flexibility through the waving motion of the technique. This is also important because other stroke styles are determined by the downward motion, whereas the rebound is more central to the Moeller technique. The up and down motions produce a sequence which resembles a wave or whip in the hand. While the open/close technique relies heavily on the wrist and the fingers, the Moeller method utilises the wrist and the arm more. As expected, problems to be solved and practised are also present in this case. The waving motion is likely to result in dynamic inconsistencies, which need to be minimised (Hessler, 2005). Moeller’s contemporary, the percussionist, instrument maker, and businessman William F. Ludwig remembered in his memoire how sought after good percussionists were at the beginning of the 20th century. Moeller, who went on tours often, was considered to be a gifted drummer. During his tours, he performed but was also eager to show and teach his technique to others. He recorded his exercises and distributed them among his students. Ludwig, who had acquired significant instrument production capacity and a factory called Ludwig Drum Co., sensed the business opportunity in the innovations. In 1920, his company was the first to publish Moeller’s exercises with the title The Moeller Book (F. Ludwig, 2002).

 

The First Primers

Throughout the centuries, the combinations of strokes and rhythms have evolved into various rudiments and rhythm patterns, which have been passed on through tradition. As with other instruments, basic rhythms or rudiments are often completed with ornaments. On the snare drum, ornaments usually take the form of grace notes, the use of which used to vary from one country to the next substantially and was mostly observed in orchestra performances. Now, multiple primers based on different traditions can be accessed in print. One may trace quite well the similarities and differences of certain playing techniques and approaches in sheet music and methodological treatises. Studying these could provide decisive insight in playing a piece or an orchestral excerpt, since French, German, and American drummers employed different ornaments due to diverging traditions. Without appropriate knowledge about the historical, musical, and technical traditions, it might prove impossible for the first try to decipher the playing technique and perfectly reconstruct what was intended in the sheet music.

Swiss military rudiments were first transcribed using phonetically notated words. A Frenchman called Winzer invented a way to transcribe such rudiments at the end of the 19th century. He was not a professional drummer; he owned a restaurant and taught drumming (Caron, 2010). The transcription method he devised was not particularly modern as it used symbols instead of bars in a table made up of squares. Each square represented a stroke, while symbols indicated what modification or ornament the stroke has.

In 1912, another drumming enthusiast who happened to be a lawyer called Fritz Berger developed the foundations for the more modern notation which is still in use today. The transcription method resembled the American notation, which included sticking patterns, but was still considered relatively complicated. The system was perfected in 1920 and put in its final form in 1926 (Caron, 2010). Berger used one-line staves instead of the five customary with other notations and also included sticking patterns, albeit in a different form than the American notation. While Americans matched the rhythm notations under the five staves with sticking patterns, Berger’s notation recorded the sticking pattern through the position of note with respect to the only line. Notes above the line had to be struck by the right hand, notes below were to be produced by the left hand. The main notes as well as the ornaments were transcribed in this way, the latter, however, with reduced note heads.

Wolfgang Basler’s snare drum primer follows the same concept, while providing a thorough summary about traditional snare drumming (Basler, n.d.). In the volumes for the intermediate level (D2, D3), he describes the traditional grip and differentiates between three stick heights for drummers: small (K), medium (M), and large (G). For small motions, the wrist should move only marginally. For quiet sequences, a distance of 2 centimetres from the plane of the membrane is advised; for tremolos and rolls, this figure is 7 centimetres, while single strokes and mezzo forte dynamics require 12 centimetres. A distance of 23 centimetres from the drumhead is recommended for the middle stick height (M), which is appropriate for playing emphasised and accentuated notes with forte dynamics. It should be complemented with greater wrist movements and a turn in the left hand. The large stick height of 40 centimetres (G) is meant only for the highest dynamics and strong strokes. The motion is similar to the middle stick height, but the arms also participate in the movement of the wrists. In a subsequent chapter of Basler’s primer, the finger technique for the buzz roll is presented.

The methodological structure of early snare drum primers always follow the percussion traditions of the respective nation. Invariably, the authors briefly touch upon the history of the instrument, while some also include guidelines for grips and adequate playing techniques. Examples for the latter include Heinrich Knauer’s primer published in Leipzig in 1913, the methodological treatise by the Republican Guard percussionist Robert Tourte published in Paris in 1946, or the etude collection by Alfred Wagner from 1952, also published in Leipzig.

Franz Krüger’s (1880–1940) primer titled Pauken- und Kleine-Trommel-Schule mit Orchesterstudien is a highly influential work until this day. Krüger, who was principal timpanist for the Staatsoper in Berlin and percussion instructor at the Musikhochschule in Berlin, created practice material and orchestral studies, which were used to compile an exquisite collection by Kurt Ulrich, his student, after Krüger’s death, in 1942. The largest chapter of the volume considers kettle drumming, exploring the insights of playing the instruments through brief etudes and detailed orchestral excerpts. Snare drumming is featured in a separate chapter, in which technical practice, technique improvement exercises, and rhythm exercises provide guidance for students about the use of the instrument as it is taught in Germany, followed by sheet music for popular orchestral pieces. A distinct section within the chapter is dedicated to military snare drumming with exercises and excerpts, which serve as introduction into military drumming and military practices. The last part of the work contains orchestral excerpts for xylophone and tubular bells.

The pedagogical influence exerted by Heinrich Knauer (1879–1947), who was percussionist and solo timpanist for the Staatskapelle in Dresden, is evidenced by multiple published primers. In the foreword for the Kleine Trommelschule published in 1913, he offers a short introduction of the snare drum and its history. A couple of sentences about the African precursors of the instrument are followed by the statement that contemporary instruments are distinct from historical ones. The overview proceeds at a fast pace by explaining that for a long time, many nations used the snare drum primarily for military purposes, but subsequently it also appeared in opera, concert, and dance orchestras (Knauer, 1913). This collection relies on the literature of symphonic and salon orchestras in presenting the instrument. An extensive rhythm explanation is also included alongside a musical dictionary, which, with one and a half pages, is unusually detailed for a primer. The informative section contains instructions on the playing technique for the snare drum. As in a successive primer, Heinrich Knauer places little emphasis on ornaments. He introduces the possibility of playing grace notes by both hands, but he recommends three grace notes to be played by one hand in a roll-like fashion. In the section of the primer which offers a short introduction of the instrument, he writes: “the snare drum is usually hung over the shoulder using a leather strap, but in symphonic orchestras, it is generally placed on a chair in a tilted position…” (Knauer, 1913). It is clear that the stand, which is in general use today, had not been developed until the text was written. The remark suggests that the most effective solution at the time was to place the snare drum on a chair in a slightly tilted position.

Knauer’s early primer contains 42 exercises and some orchestral excerpts at the end. Later he published a revised edition, which included several of the original exercises without alteration. The revised primer follows a similar concept to the original but has two chapters: one with 40 and the other with 37 exercises. Etudes are followed by a separate section of snare drum duos. In the first chapter, rhythm exercises are succeeded by a distinct part about the way grace notes should be practised, while the second chapter provides tools to develop and practise drum rolls, followed by complex etudes. It is at the beginning of the primer where the history of the snare drum is outlined, whereas at the end, a collection of orchestral excerpts is published (Knauer, 1954).

Compared to the works above, Alfred Wagner’s primer goes into considerable detail on how to practise the drum roll. Correct and incorrect playing techniques of the drum roll are explained through figures. Rhythm notations are introduced using technical exercises. The teacher is intended to also have a role in helping the student by playing the base rhythm displayed on the sheet music as the pulse requires. The primer contains various exercises to improve technique and rhythm, and the practice of changing between bars and tempos also receives substantial emphasis. As in previous German primers, Wagner also recommends three grace notes to be played with one hand before the main note. He also mentions the exceptional case when consecutive grace notes are to be played distinctly, and offers practical exercises on how to start the sequence by either hand. At the end of the primer, orchestral excepts are preceded by nine exercises for two snare drums and one for three snare drums (Wagner, 1952).

Unlike previous primers, Richard Hochrainer’s primers and remarks offer considerable insight into the playing techniques of the time in Austria. Hochrainer was born in Vienna in 1904 and became an important figure in the so-called German-Austrian school during his career. He characterised snare drum strokes in the following way:

  1. Simple stroke
    The stroke consists of an upward motion to gain momentum and the stroke itself, by either the right or left hand, as the player deems fit or as the musical process requires.
     
  2. Stroke with one grace note (the flam)
    This stroke starts with both hands gaining momentum at the same time, but the drumhead is not hit simultaneously with both sticks. The upstroke for the hand playing the grace note is not as high as that for the hand playing the principal note, which is why the former stick reaches the drumhead first, resulting in a less pronounced ornament. Interestingly, Hochrainer advises that the right hand should lead in playing unembellished notes as a general rule, so grace notes are usually played by the right hand and principal notes by the left.
     
  3. Stroke with two or three grace notes (the ruff)
    These ornaments are recommended to be played with a tapping technique, according to Hochrainer. In a similar way to the previous case, two grace notes are also to be played by the right hand, the principal note, by the left. Furthermore, it is also true here that the hand playing the ornament is not lifted as high as the other one. Compared to the stroke with one grace note, this rudiment provides a wider and longer ornament, which is necessary, as explained by Hochrainer, for delaying the principal note. The stroke with three grace notes is sounded through a similar approach. Unlike French primers, Hochrainer does not differentiate between the two ornament types to a significant extent. he argues that the stroke with three grace notes has a slightly longer embellishment than the one with two, which is why the taps must be played distinctly by one hand. The adequate playing technique requires the drummer to play grace notes as two or three clear and distinct taps so they are not confused with a short roll.
     
  4. Stroke with four grace notes (the five-stroke roll or drag roll)
    In this case, both hands get an equal part in playing the ornament, which resembles the American and French playing technique. The embellishment consists of four short taps, two by each hand. They are struck using uniform and small movements. As a consequence, the ornament is not particularly loud compared to the principal note. The sequence may be started by either hand, the principal note follows the ornament by the initiating hand.
     
  5. Roll
    Both German and Austrian traditions derive constant rolls or tremolos from taps. The roll is somewhat similar to ornaments but the taps are continuous and uniform. Early German primers do not contain guidelines about the tempo and rhythm of the roll. Without exception, primers offer the same exercise to master the roll, which comprises accelerating and decelerating double strokes or diddles until the tempo of the roll is reached and back. Primers use multiple notations for the roll. The notation which represents the trill in other traditions, namely the three or four slashes through the note stem, is used for the roll in German primers (Knauer, 1913). Differences in the playing technique are notated through the use of ties. When the roll is tied to the subsequent  stroke, it is finished with that stroke; by contrast, if there is no tie, the subsequent note must be initiated distinctly. German primers provide explicit instructions with respect to such notation.

Besides stroke techniques, Hochrainer also explains how the use of the left hand is related to grace notes, in particular, why the principal note should be struck by the left hand. He argues that the principal note which is sounded by the right hand after grace notes is not as pleasant as it is in the case of the left hand. This is because the resonance of the right hand is channelled directly into the floor as the drum is tilted. Grace notes should be played in a soft yet articulated manner, even by left-handed people (Hochrainer, 2012). We must bear in mind that the instructions are meant for traditional snare drumming with an asymmetrical grip and a tilted instrument.

While Knauer’s primer from 1913 recommended the snare drum in the orchestra to be placed on a chair, Alfred Wagner’s snare drum primer presents the solution of a snare drum stand, which is converted from a revolving chair with adjustable height. Since Wagner deemed the stable positioning of the instrument important, his work provides detailed discussion about the stand. He considers the optimal stand for positioning snare drums to be made of steel tubes with rubber-coated legs to prevent sliding, to provide stability, and to soften the sound (Wagner, 1952). His primer is structured in a similar way to previous works, but with more extensive rhythm exercises. 170 exercises are followed by two snare drum etudes and seven snare drum duos. The primer contains useful exercises to overcome common technical and musical problems in orchestral play, but orchestral excerpts are not included.

At the beginning of the 20th century, various innovations arose in the way how instruments and related tools are secured. The spread of dance music and the first drum kits provided several ideas and great inspiration for innovators. One important invention is the first foldable snare drum stand, that is, the mechanism which is still in use today. The stand was first constructed in 1898 in Indianapolis by U.G. Leedy, who started his career as a professional percussionist. He had an interest in improving instruments. In subsequent years, he also produced snare drums and other percussion instruments. As a result, he had a significant percussion instrument factory by 1920 (Leedy Product Developments, n.d.).

The primer titled Methode de Tambour by Robert Tourte summarises traditional French snare drumming. The work presents the percussion instruments of the time and a variety of snare drums between the 15th and 18th centuries in drawings. A short historical overview is followed by the detailed description of the snare drum. Besides the instrument itself, its accessories and tools are also presented, including the stick, the carrying sling, the snare, and the snare strainer. Figures about the correct position of the drum and the grips in each hand are succeeded by descriptions about rhythm. Not only is the primer instructive, it also contains multiple historical marches from the Napoleonic era (Galm, 1965). The primer reflects the mindset of French snare drumming. When comparing early German primers with Tourte’s, the stark difference between the two pedagogical schools becomes evident. German snare drum primers consider orchestral play as the foundation, whereas Tourte bases his primer on the traditions of French drumming. He begins by teaching rhythms and by directing the roll to be played in a similar way to German primers: accelerating double taps until the roll is reached. While German primers do not count the notes in the roll, that is, they do not prescribe the explicit rhythm, French education directs the drummer to play a specific number of notes in the roll, which depends on the desired length. As we shall see, this is also true for the American tradition. Often a notation appears above the roll with a number between 5 and 13, which denotes the number of strokes, including the closing note, to aid the player (Blades, 1992).

The French primer often constructs ornaments from double strokes, with the principal note in focus, which is preceded by the grace notes. According to the instruction, two grace notes should be played by the same hand, and a longer sequence of an odd number of grace notes should be started with one grace note struck by one hand, followed by a double stroke by the other. Considering the example of a stroke with three grace notes, if we presume that the principal note is to be struck by the right hand, the preceding three grace notes should start with a single stroke in the right hand and be continued with a double stroke in the left. A similar logic applies in the reverse case: first, the grace note is played by the left hand, then the double stroke follows by the right, and the principal note struck by the left concludes. An analogous technique is to be applied with more, that is, five, seven, nine, eleven grace notes.

Besides traditional and classical snare drumming, one of the most common types of drumming is the American rudimental, which can be traced back to British origins. During the Thirty Years’ War in the 17th century, British monarch Charles II introduced the use of drums in the battlefield to facilitate the command of his troops and the transmission of orders. The battle required the signals to be understandable and simple (Tompkins, 2011). Military signals were first published in 1780 by the British publisher Longman and Broderip. Many of them are still in use today, unchanged since the Middle Ages (Blades, 1992). Some of the material can also be found in the instructive notes for American military drummers (Tompkins, 2011). After the American Revolution broke out in the 18th century, drums were used by infantry units as in Europe. In 1779, Congress prescribed extensively the use of drums as well as the players’ tasks (Spalding, 1980). By the beginning of the 19th century, the American style had deviated greatly from the French tradition, with simple fourth, eighth, and sixteenth notes alongside five-stroke or seven-stroke rolls. The resulting so-called rudimental gained popularity soon: at the beginning of the 20th century, some even organised contests between several percussion groups. Such contests are still highly popular in America, but similar events also take place in Europe. Standardised drum rudiments are included in the performance of each competing team for comparability. Rudiments were first specified in 1933, as the National Association of Rudimental Drummers listed 13 rudiments from the large variety of existing ones. The list was later amended with 13 additional rudiments (Tompkins, 2011). These rudiments are all based on combinations of the single or double strokes. Their names are often onomatopoeic terms. For instance, the stroke with one grace note is called flam, while the basic combination of single and double strokes is known as paradiddle (Blades, 1992). The rudiments and the corresponding style are influential in American education due to the preparation for contests. In 1984, the Percussive Arts Society initiated the revision of the standardised 26 rudiments. Besides the Rudimental Association, instructors, orchestral players, and band representatives were also involved in the process. The working group proposed including 14 additional rudiments to the existing 26, which resulted in a list of 40. Not only were new elements included, rudiments were also classified into four categories by age group and difficulty to prescribe which rudiments and how many of them should be performed by each age group during contests. The currently used table was published in 1984 with the discussed modifications (Wanamaker, 1988).

Numerous primers and educational materials follow the rudimental style. Most of them contain rhythmic patterns and exercises to improve one’s technique, while some comprise rudimental solos. Publications in the genre employ a notation of five staves, with the sticking pattern denoted below the notes. In most cases, we find the notation for right (R) and left (L) hand under the staves, but John Pratt’s sheet music employs a unique notation developed by the author. The numbers above the staves stand for the number of strokes to be played in the roll, which provides help for the player in choosing the necessary rhythm and tempo. At the end of the piece, some authors list the rudiments used. This helps teachers assess the difficulty and choose the right practice for the given rudiments.

To understand the mindset of the rudimental style, we recommend to start with Charles Wilcoxon’s early collections. His Modern Rudimental Swing Solos from 1941 contain short solo pieces as well as rudiment explanations and variations at the beginning of the publication. Many etudes in the volume are dedicated to contemporaries of his, all of whom were famous drummers. Another collection of 150 exercises, published in 1945, teaches students about rudiments and makes them practise systematically. For advanced players, a separate volume was compiled by Wilcoxon about the adequate use of the wrist and fingers. His collection titled Wrist and Finger Stroke Control provides help to achieve swift and effortless snare drumming. For those who wish to master their drumming, we must mention the collection 14 Modern Contest Solos by John S. Pratt, which contains the most frequent rudimental pieces up to date.

 

Body and Hand Postures

As with any instrument, the adequate posture is crucial in playing the drum. Most primers do not offer guidelines on posture; instructions are limited to the correct grip and hand posture, leaving the monitoring of body posture to the instructor. It is only Alfred Wagner’s primer which dedicates some paragraphs to body posture alongside a detailed description of grips. The movement sequence of playing is always determined by the posture, in particular, how one is sitting. Most primers describe and teach the standing posture, as marching and military drumming still employ it to this day. The sitting posture, which has achieved general acceptance, is required for drumming in the symphonic orchestra and for modern solo drumming pieces. Another important question concerns the position and tilt of drums, which affect both the grip and posture. When sitting, the traditional grip can be used only if the drum is tilted rightwards. If the instrument is set horizontally, a symmetrical grip must be used. József Vrana’s methodological manuscript offers valuable advice for percussionist who perform while sitting. He argues that adjusting the height of the chair appropriately is instrumental for performing and practising. The player’s build is an important factor in taking the correct posture as it determines the position of shoulders, arms, and wrists during drumming (Vrana, 1965). József Gát’s famous book titled Piano Methodology offers similar advice about the sitting posture, which is also instructive for percussionists due to the similar posture (Gát, 1978). The distance from the instrument must be set carefully as it impacts the drum stroke, or when a key is hit on the piano, and, consequently, the sound. If the appropriate distance cannot be set, the posture of the wrist changes, which affects the tempo and technique both for percussionists and pianists. The role of the legs is also substantial as they provide support for the body. Furthermore, the way the player is sitting on the chair is also important. In the appropriate position, the player’s centre of mass is placed on the chair, the leg provides support, while the shoulders and hands take up a natural and relaxed position. In this case, the torso, arms, and wrist may move freely (Vrana, 1965; Gát, 1978).

Percussionists have encountered during their career various pieces which combine traditional drumming elements with the most recent technical discoveries and styles of music. Generally, those who play percussion instruments at a professional level are aware of most technical and rhythmic building blocks, and know how to play them. Players may find it complicated, however, to decipher the musical notation of solo pieces for the snare drum. The superficial and often ambiguous notation could make it difficult to select the correct playing technique in the interpretation. Yet the uncertainties may be eliminated if the player is aware of the traditions and the historical perspective, which this study has attempted to provide.

 

References

  • Blades, James (1992): Percussion Instruments and Their History. The Bold Strummer Ltd., Wesport, Connecticut.
  • Caron, Lee (2010): Swiss Drumming. Percussive Notes, Vol. 48, No. 1.
  • Collins, Mark A., II (2018): Share the Tradition – Advantages of Learning Traditional Grip. Percussive Notes, Vol. 56, No. 2. May, 10–11.
  • Croy, Michael (2003): A Physiologic Analysis of the Open/Close Technique. Percussive Notes, Vol. 54, 2003/3.
  • Galm, John K. (1965): A Study of the Rudiments Used in Foreign Military Drumming Styles. Percussionist, Vol. 2, No. 1–2. 10–27
  • Gát József (1978): Zongorametodika [Piano Methodology]. Zeneműkiadó, Budapest.
  • Hessler, Claus: Moeller Technik. Drums und Percussion, 2004/6, 2005/1, 2005/2
  • Hochrainer, Richard (2012): Drum Talk from Vienna – Embellishments. (Transl. Michael Rosen). Percussive Notes, Vol. 50, No. 1.
  • Knudtson, Gordy (1999): A New Approach to the Single-Stroke Rolls. Percussive Notes, Vol. 37, No. 2.
  • Ludwig, William F. (2002): A Retrospective Celebration. Percussive Notes, Vol. 40, No. 3.
  • Smith, Steve (2018): Matched Grip Variation. Percusssive Notes, Vol. 56. No. 2. 7–8
  • Soebbing, Hugh W. (1965): The Development of the Snare Drum. Percussionist, Vol. 2, No. 3.
  • Spalding, Dan C. (1980): The Evolution of Drum Corps Drumming. Percussionist, Vol. 17, No. 3.
  • Strain, James A. (2002): The Evolution of Snare Drum Grips. Percussive Notes, Vol. 40, No. 3.
  • Tomkins, Joseph (2011): Rudimental Drumming Styles. Percussive Notes, Vol. 49, No. 5. 68–69
  • Vrana József (1965): Az ütőhangszer tanítás módszertana [Methodology of Percussion Teaching]. Manuscript. Miskolc.
  • Wanamaker, Jay (1988): Feature. The Rudiments. Percussive Notes, Vol. 26, No. 4.

 

Website

 

Scores

  • Basler, Wolfgang (2008): Schule für Kleine Trommel. LYRA-Musikverlag, Münster, é. n., új kiadás: R & B 2008 Verlag, Altenberge.
  • Knauer, Heinrich (1913): Kleine Trommel Schule. Verlag Friedrich Hofmeister, Leipzig.
  • Knauer, Heinrich (1954): Praktische Schule für kleine Trommel. Verlag Friedrich Hofmeister, Leipzig.
  • Krüger, Franz (1942): Pauken und Kleine Trommel-Schule. Arthur Parrhysius / Verlag und Musikalienhandlung, Berlin.
  • Tourte, Robert (1946): Methode de Tambour. Editions Salabert, Paris.
  • Wagner, Alfred (1952): Der Schlagzeuger im Kulturorchester. Pro Musica Verlag, Leipzig-Berlin.
  • Wilcowon, Charley (1979): All American Drummers – 150 Rudimental Solos. Ludwig Music Publ. Co., Cleveland.
  • Wilcoxon, Charley (1979): Modern Rudimental Swing Solos. Ludwig Music Publ. Co., Cleveland.
Legutóbbi frissítés: 2022. 08. 11. 09:57